The city of Georgetown, British Guiana, witnessed a significant eruption of social unrest in March 1889, an event that has come to be known as the “Cent Bread” riot. While the immediate catalyst for this upheaval was a seemingly minor altercation at the bustling Stabroek Market over the purchase of a single cent’s worth of bread, the ensuing events revealed a much deeper and more complex web of social, economic, and ethnic tensions that characterized the late 19th century in this British colony. This episode stands as a critical juncture in Guyanese history, reflecting the precarious socio-economic conditions faced by many residents of Georgetown and highlighting the delicate and often strained relationships between different ethnic communities within the colonial framework. This article aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the “Cent Bread” riot, exploring its historical context, the specific sequence of events, the underlying causes that fueled the outburst, and its subsequent impact on Guyanese society.
To fully comprehend the significance of the 1889 riot, it is essential to examine the broader socio-economic landscape of British Guiana in the late 19th century. The colony’s economy, heavily reliant on sugarcane production for much of its history, experienced a period of significant transformation during this era. While sugarcane remained a vital export, falling global sugar prices in the 1880s spurred a gradual diversification towards other sectors such as rice farming, mining, and forestry. This economic shift, while potentially offering new avenues for prosperity, also introduced elements of instability and increased competition for resources and employment, particularly within urban centres like Georgetown. The legacy of colonial exploitation was also deeply entrenched, with much of the wealth generated by the colony’s resources historically benefiting absentee slave owners residing in Britain. This unequal distribution of wealth likely persisted even after the abolition of slavery in 1838, as colonial structures continued to favour British interests. Furthermore, the demographic composition of British Guiana had been significantly altered by the introduction of indentured labourers, primarily from India, between 1850 and 1920 to address labour shortages following emancipation. By the 1890s, the Indo-Guyanese population had surpassed that of Africans, adding another layer of complexity to the colony’s social fabric.
Within this evolving socio-economic context, the African and Portuguese communities occupied distinct positions. Following emancipation, many Afro-Guyanese individuals moved away from the plantations to establish their own independent villages along the coastal plains, demonstrating a desire for self-determination and autonomy. These settlements, sometimes characterized by cooperative social structures, faced limitations, and many Afro-Guyanese individuals sought employment in urban centres like Georgetown. Simultaneously, the Portuguese community had emerged as a significant presence in British Guiana, with many arriving as indentured labourers in the mid-19th century. Over time, a notable segment of the Portuguese community transitioned into retail and commerce, establishing themselves as shopkeepers and merchants, particularly in urban areas. This economic advancement, however, appears to have occurred, at least in part, at the expense of some African entrepreneurs who had previously occupied similar roles in the marketplace. This increasing economic competition in the retail sector, particularly in Georgetown, likely fostered a sense of resentment and economic disparity within the African community.
The Morning of March 19, 1889
The immediate trigger for the “Cent Bread” riot occurred on the morning of March 19, 1889, at the bustling Stabroek Market in Georgetown. A 14-year-old African Guianese boy named Gershom Nurse was sent by his mother to purchase cassava and a small loaf of bread, which cost one cent. After paying for this item, the boy then took a larger loaf, valued at two cents, and attempted to leave the shop. John Veira, the Portuguese shopkeeper, intervened, physically confronting the young boy and striking him with a stick during the ensuing argument. This act of violence against a child in a public marketplace would have undoubtedly drawn the attention and ire of onlookers. Market constables promptly arrested Veira and took him to a nearby police station. However, the shopkeeper was quickly released, a decision that immediately fueled suspicion and anger within the gathered African community, fostering rumours of police bias in favour of the Portuguese. Veira was subsequently re-arrested and taken into custody, while the injured boy was taken to the police station and then admitted to the Colonial Hospital for treatment. As news of the incident and the initial release of the shopkeeper spread rapidly throughout Georgetown, fueled by word-of-mouth, a rumour began to circulate within the African community that a Portuguese man had killed an African boy and that the police had been instructed to release the perpetrator. This inflammatory rumour acted as the catalyst that transformed a localized incident into a widespread and violent riot.
The spread of the rumour about the boy’s death ignited immediate and intense anger within the African community in Georgetown. A full-scale riot erupted first at Stabroek Market itself, with groups of Africans launching attacks on Portuguese shops and individuals present in the vicinity. The unrest quickly spilled out of the market and into the streets of Georgetown, with the rioters, predominantly women and young people from the poorer sections of the city, surging through the streets. Their anger was primarily directed towards the Portuguese community and their economic establishments. Portuguese shops across Georgetown became the primary targets of the rioters’ fury. These businesses were stoned, their windows smashed, and the interiors ransacked and looted. Portuguese citizens encountered on the streets were also subjected to physical violence, with some even being forcibly removed from tramcars and beaten by the enraged crowds. The rioters targeted not only the shops themselves but also the goods within. Provision shops, likely owned by Portuguese individuals, were gutted, and essential food items such as flour, rice, butter, and sugar were scattered on the streets, perhaps symbolizing a rejection of the perceived economic control exerted by the Portuguese community. In certain areas of Georgetown, particularly the Charlestown district, where a significant number of Portuguese residents and businesses were located, some buildings were even set on fire, indicating a desire to inflict substantial damage and sow fear within the targeted community. The extent of the destruction was considerable, with later assessments estimating the total property damage at over $39,000, a substantial sum in the currency of the time.
The “Cent Bread” riot was not an isolated outburst but rather the culmination of long-simmering tensions rooted in economic competition and social inequality between the African and Portuguese communities in British Guiana. For decades prior to 1889, a palpable sense of economic rivalry had been building, with African Guianese individuals feeling increasingly marginalized in the face of the growing economic success of the Portuguese, particularly in the retail sector. There was a widespread perception within the African community that Portuguese shopkeepers often engaged in unfair business practices when dealing with African customers, further fueling resentment and a sense of economic exploitation. This feeling of being unfairly disadvantaged in the economic sphere created a fertile ground for discontent to take root and fester. Beyond economic grievances, there were also deeply ingrained perceptions of social inequality and a lack of equal justice under the colonial legal system. The African community widely believed that there was a significant disparity in how the law was applied, with Portuguese individuals often receiving more lenient treatment for crimes committed against Africans compared to the punishments meted out to Africans for offences against the Portuguese. This perceived bias in the justice system fostered a profound sense of injustice and undermined the legitimacy of the colonial authorities in the eyes of the African population. Specific instances, such as the rumoured case of a Portuguese man receiving a reprieve for the alleged murder of his African wife while an African man had previously been executed for killing his Portuguese wife, served as powerful and deeply troubling symbols of this perceived inequality, further inflaming existing tensions.
British Policies & Inter-ethnic Tensions
The British colonial administration’s policies and actions also appear to have played a role in exacerbating these inter-ethnic tensions. Historical accounts suggest that the colonial ruling class may have consciously or unconsciously promoted the Portuguese community as a buffer within the colonial social structure. Such a strategy, whether deliberate or an unintended consequence of other policies, would have likely been interpreted by the African Guianese as a form of favouritism, hindering their own social and economic advancement and reinforcing the existing power imbalances within the colony. This perceived preferential treatment would have further contributed to the underlying animosity felt by the African community towards the Portuguese. Moreover, the “Cent Bread” riot did not emerge in a vacuum but was part of a broader historical pattern of social and ethnic unrest in Guyana. Previous riots, such as the “Angel Gabriel” riots of 1848 and 1856, also involved Africans targeting Portuguese individuals and businesses, with economic competition cited as a primary cause. These earlier incidents, along with other instances of labour unrest and resistance against colonial rule throughout Guyanese history, underscore the existence of deep-seated and long-standing grievances within the society that periodically erupted into open conflict.
In response to the widespread rioting that engulfed Georgetown, the British colonial authorities mobilized their security forces in an attempt to restore order. The Sheriff of Georgetown, acting under the command of Governor Gormanston, organized the existing police force and enlisted an additional 100 special constables to patrol the city. However, these initial efforts proved largely ineffective as the rioters, armed with makeshift weapons, attacked the peacekeepers, resulting in injuries to many. As the situation continued to deteriorate, the British Guiana Volunteer Force, a more substantial quasi-military unit, was called in to assist. Even the Volunteer Force faced significant challenges in containing the determined rioters and sustained casualties in the process. As a last resort, the Governor issued an order for the Volunteer Force to open fire on the rioters, but this order was ultimately not executed as the crowds, perhaps wary of the armed force, dispersed to other parts of the city, indicating a degree of tactical awareness. By the late afternoon of March 20, after two days of intense unrest, the combined efforts of the police and the Volunteer Force managed to gradually disperse the mobs and regain control over Georgetown.
The Aftermath
The immediate aftermath of the “Cent Bread” riot saw casualties on both sides, although the reported death toll appears to have been relatively low, with one recorded fatality – a Barbadian of African descent who was killed while defending a Portuguese friend’s property. However, numerous individuals sustained injuries during the clashes. In the days following the riot, the colonial authorities launched a swift crackdown, arresting over 230 people who were believed to have been involved in the unrest. The majority of those arrested were subsequently found guilty in the magistrate court and sentenced to two months of hard labour, demonstrating the colonial administration’s firm stance against the rioters. Notably, John Veira, the Portuguese shopkeeper whose actions had ignited the entire episode, was also convicted of assault and sentenced to two months of imprisonment, suggesting a formal, albeit perhaps symbolic, acknowledgement of his role in triggering the riot. In terms of material consequences, the extensive looting and destruction of property, primarily targeting Portuguese-owned businesses and residences, resulted in substantial financial losses. The total damage was later assessed at over $39,000. In response to these losses, the colonial government made the decision to provide financial compensation to the Portuguese community, with the total amount paid out reaching $39,452. This act of compensating one specific ethnic group for their losses, while no similar compensation was explicitly mentioned for the African community, underscores the colonial administration’s likely prioritization of the economic interests of the Portuguese and potentially reflects their perceived importance within the colonial economic structure.
The “Cent Bread” riot, while a relatively short-lived event, had a notable impact on the already strained relationship between the African and Portuguese communities in Guyana. Occurring against a backdrop of pre-existing tensions rooted in economic competition and mutual prejudices that had persisted for decades, the riot likely served to further entrench negative stereotypes and deepen the divisions between these two ethnic groups. The violence and destruction specifically targeting the Portuguese community would have undoubtedly left a lasting scar and fostered a climate of fear and distrust. Beyond its immediate impact on inter-ethnic relations, the “Cent Bread” riot holds a significant place within the broader history of social and labour unrest in Guyana. It serves as a powerful reminder of the deep-seated social and economic grievances that simmered beneath the surface of colonial society and the ever-present potential for these frustrations to erupt into open conflict, often along existing ethnic fault lines. The riot, along with other instances of resistance and rebellion throughout Guyanese history, highlights the ongoing struggle for social justice, economic equality, and an end to the inequalities inherent in the colonial system. Interestingly, some historical accounts suggest that in the aftermath of the 1889 riots, the Portuguese community reportedly recognized the need to forge alliances with other disenfranchised elements within Guyanese society, particularly the Afro-Guyanese community. This suggests that the riot, while a moment of intense inter-ethnic conflict, might have also inadvertently prompted some segments of the population to consider new forms of cross-ethnic collaboration in the face of shared marginalization within the colonial framework.
In conclusion, the “Cent Bread” riot of March 1889 in Georgetown, British Guiana, was a pivotal moment in the colony’s history. Triggered by a seemingly insignificant dispute over a penny’s worth of bread, the riot quickly escalated into widespread violence, primarily targeting the Portuguese community. The underlying causes of this unrest were deeply rooted in decades of economic competition, perceptions of social and legal inequality, and the complex dynamics of a colonial society marked by ethnic diversity and power imbalances. The colonial authorities responded with force, eventually restoring order and compensating the Portuguese community for their losses. The “Cent Bread” riot stands as a stark testament to the simmering tensions and the ever-present potential for social combustion within colonial Guyana, leaving a lasting legacy on inter-ethnic relations and serving as a reminder of the struggles for justice and equality that characterized the era.
